Method of recombinant macromolecular production

ABSTRACT

A method for recombinantly expressing a macromolecule in a host cell is disclosed which involves culturing a host cell which contains two nucleic acid sequences, i.e., a first nucleic acid sequence encoding a membrane-permeabilizing agent and a second nucleic acid sequence encoding a desired macromolecule under the operative control of an inducible promoter, to a selected cell density that permits accumulation of the agent. Thereafter the host cell is exposed to an environmental condition that induces the agent to disrupt the integrity of the cell membrane without complete lysis of the cell membrane. The host cell thereby allows transport through the membrane of small molecular weight compounds. These resulting host cells are cultured in the presence of a nutrient cocktail that contains components that can transport through the disrupted cell membrane, e.g., an inducing agent that induces the tightly regulated promoter and metabolic requirements that permit expression of the macromolecule. Alternatively, a method for enhancing recombinant expression of a macromolecule in a host cell comprises contacting a host cell at a suitable cell density with a membrane-permeabilizing agent that disrupts the integrity of the cell membrane without complete lysis of the membrane, and allows transport through the membrane of small molecular weight compounds. The host cell contains a nucleic acid sequence encoding a macromolecule under the operative control of an inducible promoter. These cells are then cultured in the presence of an above-described nutrient cocktail, and permits enhanced expression of the macromolecule in the membrane-disrupted host cell. Each method can also be employed in methods for in situ drug screening, among other uses.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application is a national stage of International Patent ApplicationNo. PCT/US2011/052911, filed Sep. 23, 2011, which claims the benefit ofthe priority of U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 61/386,513,filed Sep. 26, 2010 (expired), which applications are incorporatedherein by reference.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

Recombinant macromolecules are of considerable interest topharmaceutical and biotechnological research and include both nucleicacids (ribo- and deoxyribonucleic acids) and proteins. Of these,recombinant proteins receive the most attention due to their diversityand numerous applications. Certain aspects of pharmaceutical andbiotechnological research are dependent upon the production ofrecombinant macromolecules. Such recombinant macromolecules are producedin a variety of host cells including, but not limited to, bacterialcells (e.g., Escherichia coli), yeast cells, insect cells, and mammaliancells. In many instances, the recombinant macromolecule is produced in aheterologous host cell, i.e., a host cell that is different from themacromolecule's native source. For example, the biotechnology drug humangrowth hormone, which is a secreted protein from the human pituitarygland, is produced recombinantly in the bacterium Escherichia coli (E.coli). Such heterologous host cell systems do not always successfullyproduce the desired recombinant macromolecule. Often times the desiredprotein can be misfolded in the heterologous host cell (i.e., it doesnot have its native structure and is therefore nonfunctional), orexpressed in a form that is insoluble, toxic, aggregated, or degraded.Often the recombinant macromolecule is simply produced in insufficientquantities in the heterologous host cell. Modified recombinant proteinsor recombinant fusion proteins may also pose production challenges, evenin homologous host cell systems, due to their unnatural compositions.

A common approach to address the above-noted challenges of recombinantmacromolecule production is the use of alternative host cell systems.However, certain macromolecular production problems, such as misfoldedproteins, are addressed post production in the host cell system, whichcan be labor intensive as well as not being effective for all proteins.In addition, addressing these issues is generally a protein specificprocess, resulting in low throughput. Another method to address certainmacromolecular production problems involves the use of cell-free proteinexpression systems. A practical limitation of these systems is that theyare not scaleable. The protein production limit of cell-free expressionsystems is generally 50 milligrams or less, and often the productionlimit is just a few milligrams. In addition, storage of the cellextracts and cell lysates leads to a diminution in their capacity toproduce protein. These systems also have no meaningful capacity toproduce significant amounts of nucleic acid and therefore require asecond system to provide a supply of the requisite DNA template.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

In one aspect, a method for recombinantly expressing a macromolecule ina host cell is provided. This method comprises culturing a host cellwhich contains a nucleic acid sequence encoding amembrane-permeabilizing agent and a nucleic acid sequence encoding adesired macromolecule, both sequences under the control of separateregulatory sequences, until a suitable cell density is reached. Duringthis step, the membrane-permeabilizing agent has been produced withinthe cell. In one aspect, the method involves exposing the host cell toan environmental condition that induces the membrane-permeabilizingagent to disrupt the integrity of the cell membrane without completelysis of the cell membrane. Thereafter, the cell is provided with anutrient cocktail containing small molecular weight components that cantransport through the disrupted cell membrane. These components caninclude an inducing agent that induces a promoter directing expressionof the macromolecule, and sufficient metabolic requirements that permitexpression of the macromolecule in the membrane-disrupted host cell.This method allows the macromolecule to be expressed in the correctconformation and/or in a desired amount within the host cell. In certainembodiments, the cells are concentrated prior to any inducingenvironmental condition and contact with the nutrient cocktail. In otherembodiments, the cells, after contact with the nutrient cocktail andinduction of expression of the macromolecule, are lysed and themacromolecule harvested.

In another aspect, a method for enhancing recombinant expression of amacromolecule in a host cell is provided. This method involvescontacting a host cell containing a nucleic acid sequence encoding amacromolecule under the control of a tightly regulated promoter, whichcells have reached a suitable cell density, with amembrane-permeabilizing agent. The agent is applied to the cell cultureexternally and disrupts the integrity of the cell membrane withoutcomplete lysis of the membrane. Thereafter the cell is provided with anutrient cocktail containing small molecule weight components that cantransport through the disrupted cell membrane. These components caninclude an inducing agent that induces the promoter directing expressionof the macromolecule and sufficient metabolic requirements that permitexpression of the macromolecule in the membrane-disrupted host cell.This method allows the macromolecule to be expressed in the correctconformation and/or in a desired amount within the host cell. In certainembodiments, the cells are concentrated prior to contact with themembrane-permeabilizing agent and the nutrient cocktail. In otherembodiments, the cells, after contact with the nutrient cocktail andinduction of expression of the macromolecule, are lysed and themacromolecule harvested.

In still another aspect, a method for in situ drug screening involvesuse of one or the other methods for recombinant production of a desiredmacromolecule as described above. In one aspect, the method involvesculturing in each well of a mini-well plate a host cell containing bothnucleic acid sequences, as described above. In one embodiment, each wellcontains a nucleic acid sequence encoding the same macromolecule. Inanother embodiment, each well contains a nucleic acid sequence encodinga different similar macromolecule, e.g., one member of a library ofvariant macromolecules. In another embodiment, each well contains anucleic acid sequence encoding a different macromolecule, e.g., agenomic library. These host cells in each well are then exposed to anenvironmental condition suitable to induce the expression of themembrane-permeabilizing agent in the cell to disrupt the integrity ofthe cell membrane without complete lysis of the membrane as indicatedabove. In each well the host cells are cultured in the presence of theabove-described nutrient cocktail, resulting in expression of themacromolecules in the host cells of each well. In one embodiment inwhich each well contains the same expressed macromolecule, a differenttest reagent is applied to each well. In another embodiment, in whicheach well expresses a different macromolecule variant or a differentmacromolecule, the same test reagent is applied to each well. Subsequentuse of conventional assays, e.g., ELISAs, mass spectrometry, etc.,permit the determination of the identity of the macromolecule thatresponded to the single test reagent in one embodiment, or the identityof the test reagent that induced a response in the same macromolecules,in the other aspect.

In yet another aspect, the in situ drug screening involves the use ofthe externally applied membrane-permeabilizing agent/macromoleculeproduction method described above. In this aspect, the screening furtherinvolves exposing the cells in each well to externally appliedmembrane-permeabilizing agent, optionally with other environmentalconditions. Thereafter, the test agent(s) are applied to the wells andassayed in the same manner as mentioned herein.

Other aspects and advantages of these methods are described further inthe following detailed description of the preferred embodiments thereof.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

The present invention is a method for producing recombinantmacromolecules that otherwise may be difficult to produce in host cellsystems due to improper structure, toxicity, insolubility, novelconstituents or insufficient quantities. The methods, described indetail below, involve treating a host cell capable of producing thedesired recombinant macromolecule with a membrane-permeabilizing agentto disrupt the integrity of the host cell's membrane followed byexposing the host cell to conditions sufficient for the production ofthe desired recombinant macromolecule.

I. Methods of Recombinantly Producing Macromolecules

According to the methods described herein, the cellular membrane of thehost cell in which a selected macromolecule is expressed is deliberatelymanipulated to permit the macromolecule to be expressed in largequantities and in the correct conformation.

The integrity of a cell's membrane is necessary to maintain itspermeability barrier (which controls the transport of molecules to thecell's interior), its compartmentalization function (which allows thecell to maintain an internal environment different from the externalenvironment), and its capacity for energy production (which provides thecell with an energy source for its metabolic activities). All thesefunctions are necessary for the cell to maintain its metabolic activity,including macromolecular production. Should the integrity of the cell'smembrane be sufficiently compromised, macromolecular production wouldstop.

The cell membrane's permeability barrier allows certain molecules toenter the cell interior through two basic mechanisms: active and passivetransport. Active transport is an energy requiring process capable oftransporting molecules against a concentration gradient (low to highconcentration) with the aid of a selective transport complex forfacilitating a specific molecule's entry to the cell interior. Suchtransport complexes are specific and saturable and therefore limited intheir ability to deliver a diversity of molecules across the cellmembrane. Passive transport, on the other hand, does not require anenergy source and generally only works to transport molecules down aconcentration gradient (high to low concentration). Passive transportconveys non-water molecules across cellular membranes often by one oftwo basic mechanisms: simple diffusion and facilitated diffusion. Insimple diffusion, molecules move by random motion from a region of highconcentration to a region of low concentration.

However, with the presence of a cell membrane not all molecules diffuseacross the membrane equally. Restrictive criteria for simple diffusionacross cell membranes can include a molecule's size, charge, orsolubility. Facilitated diffusion, on the other hand, utilizes aselective complex for transferring molecules across cellular membranesdown a concentration gradient.

Despite the variety of transport mechanisms extant, not all moleculeshave equal access to the cell's interior because of the selectivepermeability of the cell's membrane. According to the present methods,reducing the selectivity of a cell's membrane allows a greater diversityof molecules to diffuse across the cell's membrane into the cellinterior for the purpose of enhancing expression of an insertedmacromolecule expression system.

The cell membrane also allows the cell to maintain an internalenvironment different from the external environment. Separating thesetwo environments allows the cell to create an optimal intracellularenvironment conducive to its many metabolic reactions including proteinsynthesis, nucleic acid synthesis, and energy generation. Specificdifferences in the intracellular environment versus the extracellularenvironment include pH, salt concentration, osmolarity, soluteconcentration and reduction-oxidation (redox) potential. According tothe present methods, described in detail herein, disrupting theintegrity of a cell's membrane allows equilibration between the cell'sinternal and external environments.

Finally, cell membranes can provide a potential energy source to thecell by maintaining both a pH difference across the membrane and amembrane potential (a charge difference across the membrane). When thecharge difference is due to the separation of protons, the potentialenergy is referred to as the proton motive force. In certain cells, theproton motive force can indirectly contribute to the production of ATP,which is a critical chemical energy source for the cell. The presentmethods cause the membrane potential to be lost by permeabilizing themembrane, thereby cancelling the energized membrane function. The hostcell's metabolic activities are thereby provided externally by thealternative energy source provided in the nutrient cocktail.

The present methods manipulate the cellular membrane permeability toenhance production of a selected macromolecule. One embodiment of theinvention provides a method for recombinantly expressing a macromoleculein a host cell. The method comprises culturing to a cell densitysufficient to meet the desired production levels of the macromolecule, ahost cell containing a first nucleic acid sequence encoding amembrane-permeabilizing agent under the operative control of a firstregulatory sequence that directs expression of the agent in the hostcell; and a second nucleic acid sequence encoding the macromoleculeunder the operative control of a second regulatory sequence comprising atightly regulated promoter, the second regulatory sequence directing theexpression of the macromolecule in the host cell.

In this embodiment, the method exposes the host cell to an environmentalcondition that induces the membrane permeabilizing agent to disrupt theintegrity of the cell membrane without complete lysis of the cellmembrane, thereby allowing transport through the membrane of smallmolecular weight compounds. In this embodiment, the method includesculturing the host cell in the presence of a nutrient cocktailcomprising components that can transport through the disrupted cellmembrane, the components comprising an inducing agent that induces thepromoter of the second regulatory sequence and metabolic requirementsthat permit expression of the macromolecule in the membrane-disruptedhost cell.

Another aspect of the invention provides a method for enhancingrecombinant expression of a macromolecule in a host cell. The methodcomprises contacting a host cell at a suitable cell density with amembrane-permeabilizing agent that disrupts the integrity of the cellmembrane without complete lysis of the membrane, and allows transportthrough the membrane of small molecular weight compounds, the host cellcontaining a nucleic acid sequence encoding a macromolecule under theoperative control of a regulatory sequence comprising a tightlyregulated promoter, the regulatory sequence directing expression of themacromolecule in the host cell.

The method further comprises culturing the host cells in the presence ofa nutrient cocktail comprising components that can transport through thedisrupted cell membrane, the components comprising metabolicrequirements that permit enhanced expression of the macromolecule in themembrane-disrupted host cell.

II. Components of the Macromolecule Production Methods

Unless defined otherwise in this specification, technical and scientificterms used herein have the same meaning as commonly understood by one ofordinary skill in the art to which this invention belongs and byreference to published texts. While various embodiments in thespecification or claims are presented using “comprising” language, undervarious circumstances, a related embodiment may also be described using“consisting of” or “consisting essentially of” language. It is to benoted that the term “a” or “an”, refers to one or more, for example, “acompound,” is understood to represent one or more compounds. As such,the terms “a” (or “an”), “one or more,” and “at least one” are usedinterchangeably herein.

A. Host Cells

By the term “host cell”, it is meant a cell derived from a prokaryoticmicroorganism or a eukaryotic cell line cultured as a unicellularentity, which can be, or has been, used as a recipient for recombinantvectors. The term includes the progeny of the original cell which hasbeen transfected. It is understood that the progeny of a single parentalcell may not necessarily be completely identical in morphology or ingenomic or total DNA complement to the original parent, due toaccidental or deliberate mutation. Derivatives/progeny of the parentalcell, which are sufficiently similar to the parent to be characterizedby the relevant property, such as the presence of a nucleotide sequenceencoding desired biosynthetic enzymes, are included in the definition,and are covered by the above terms. The appropriate host cell may bereadily selected by one skilled in the art. Host cells useful in thepresent method include bacterial cells, yeast cells, mammalian cells,and insect cells.

Suitable host cells or cell lines useful in this method includebacterial cells. For example, the various strains of E. coli (e.g.,HB101, MC1061, MM294, W3110, BL21 and strains used in the followingexamples) are well-known as host cells in the field of biotechnology.Various strains of B. subtilis, Pseudomonas, Streptomyces, and otherbacilli and the like are also employed in this method. Mammalian cells,such as human 293 cells, Chinese hamster ovary cells (CHO), the monkeycell lines COS-1 and Vero, the myeloma cell line NSO or murine 3T3 cellsderived from Swiss, Balb-c or NIH mice are used. Another suitablemammalian cell line is the CV-1 cell line. Still other suitablemammalian host cells, as well as methods for transfection, culture,amplification, screening, production, and purification are known in theart. (See, e.g., Gething and Sambrook, 1981 Nature, 293:620-625, oralternatively, Kaufman et al, 1985 Mol. Cell. Biol., 5(7):1750-1759 orHowley et al, U.S. Pa. No. 4,419,446). Many strains of yeast cells knownto those skilled in the art are also available as host cells forexpression of the polypeptides of the present invention. Other fungalcells are also employed as expression systems. Alternatively, insectcells such as Spodoptera frugipedera (Sf9) cells may be used.

B. Membrane-Permeabilizing Agents (“Agents”)

A number of molecular entities, or environmental conditions, are knownthat affect the permeability of cell membranes and, under appropriateconditions, could disrupt the integrity of the cell's membrane withoutcompletely lysing the cell membrane. A list of membrane-permeabilizingagents useful in the invention includes, without limitation, bacterialprotein toxins and their variants known to interact with cellularmembranes (e.g., Diphtheria toxin, the Anthrax Protective Antigen,Pseudomonas aeruginosa exotoxin A, Botulinum toxin, Tetanus toxin,Cholera toxin, S. aureus α-toxin, β-barrel pore forming toxins, E. colihemolysin, Clostridium perfringens iota toxin, listeriolysin O,cytolysins); plant protein toxins and their variants known to interactwith cellular membranes (e.g., Ricin, Abrin, Modeccin); channel proteins(e.g., ion channels, voltage-regulated channels, chemically regulatedchannels, unregulated channels); passive transport proteins; small poreforming molecules including peptides (e.g., nystatin, amphotericin B,gramicidin A, alamethicin); enzymes (e.g., lipase); gap junctionproteins; nuclear pore complexes; pore forming proteins (e.g., Porins)and holins; Colicins (e.g., Colicin E1, Colicin E3, Colicin A, ColicinIa, Colicin Y); Protegrins; complement and complement-related proteins(e.g., perforin); membrane-fusing viral proteins (e.g., hemagglutinin);Bcl-2 proteins; detergents including SDS, Triton-X, CHAPS, deoxycholicacid, n-octyl-B-D-glupyranoside, TWEEN and Triton-X; ionophores; osmoticstress reagents including glycerol, polyethylene glycol, and dextran;variants of peptides, polypeptides, and proteins previously listed. By“variant” it is meant a nucleic acid, peptide, polypeptide, or proteinwhich has changes in the amino acid or nucleic acid sequence, whetherthey are deletions, insertions, additions, or substitutions of nucleicor amino acids, as compared to an unmodified “precursor” or “parent”nucleic acid, peptide, polypeptide, or protein. The unmodified precursoror parent can be a naturally-occurring or wild-type nucleic acid,peptide, polypeptide, or protein, or a variant nucleic acid, peptide,polypeptide, or protein. The sequence of the modified protein is“derived” from the precursor or parent sequence by the substitution,deletion or insertion of one or more nucleic or amino acids of theparent sequence.

Diphtheria toxin (DT) and certain molecular variants thereof areproteins capable of forming condition-dependent pores in cellularmembranes. The DT protein contains 3 structural domains: the catalytic(C), the translocation (T), and the receptor-binding (R) domains. Whenthe DT protein is bound through the R domain to adherent mammalian cellsin culture (e.g., monkey cells, Chinese hamster cells) that aresubsequently exposed to a mildly acidic environment (ca. pH 4-5.5) theprotein undergoes a conformational change exposing latent amino acidsequences in the T domain that insert into the proximate cell membrane.Membrane insertion of the T domain disrupts the integrity of the cell'smembrane sufficiently to allow the C domain to cross the cell membraneand enter the cell's interior. The level of membrane disruption isdependent on both the concentration of DT used and the exposure pH. Atappropriate concentrations of DT, membrane insertion and disruption doesnot lyse the cells.

In one embodiment of the invention, the membrane-permeabilizing agent isDiphtheria toxin. In another embodiment, the membrane-permeabilizingagent is an attenuated Diphtheria toxin. In another embodiment of theinvention, the membrane-permeabilizing agent is DT-E148S. DT-E148S is ahypotoxic variant of Diphtheria toxin (DT) containing an approximately500-fold attenuation of activity in the C domain. When cloned with aleader sequence, in E. coli the protein is secreted to the periplasmicspace. When such cells are exposed to an acidic environment (ca. pH4-6.5) the pH of the periplasmic space is reduced and portions of theperiplasmic DT-E1485 protein insert into the E. coli cell membrane. Thisinsertion disrupts a number of functions of the inner membrane includingactive transport, membrane potential, and ion impermeability. Thedisruption of membrane function demonstrates the loss of cell membraneintegrity, yet microscopic observation demonstrates the cells have notlysed but are still intact. Furthermore, the cells retain largemolecules such as cytoplasmic enzymes but the cells do become freelypermeable to small ultraviolet light-absorbing molecules.

Variants of DT toxin useful in the methods described herein aredescribed in the literature. Some of these variants useful in theinvention include, without limitation, C domain variants includingE148D, E148Q, E148S which decrease catalytic activity and are describedin Wilson et al., Biochemistry 29: p. 8643-8651 (1990). Variants whichalter glutamic acid at position 148 are particularly desirable. Othervariants useful in the methods of the invention include H21A, H21D,H21L, H21Q, H21R which decrease catalytic activity and are described inBlanke et al, Biochemistry 33: p. 5155-5161 (1994). Still other DTvariants include those in which residues 148, 148-147, 148-146, 148-145,or 148-144 are deleted, resulting in decreased catalytic activity. See,Killeen et al, PNAS 89: p. 6207-6209 (1992). Still other DT variantsinclude R domain variants including S508F and S525F which decrease thebinding of the toxin and therefore decrease its toxicity as described inGreenfield et al, Science 274, p. 209-219 (1987). Still other variantsinclude K516A and F530A which reduce receptor binding as described byShen et al, Journal of Biological Chemistry 269: p. 29077-29084 (1994).Still other variants include DT with mutations and/or deletions in oneor more of the following residues: S381, H384, H391, R462, D465, D467,S506, D507, Q515, K516, D519, K526, A430, L433, I464, V468, F470, L512,N524, F530, S508, S528, and S505 as described in Louie et al, MolecularCell 1: p. 67-78 (1997). Still other variants include T domain variantsincluding a DT fragment including amino acids 202-378, which is furtherdescribed in Zhan et al, Biochemistry 34: p. 4856-4863 (1995). Stillother variants useful in the invention include variants of DT referredto as cross-reacting materials (CRMs) (cross reactivity being defined asimmune-cross reactivity). CRMs useful in the invention include, withoutlimitation, CRM197 which contains a G52E mutation that renders ithypotoxic; and CRM 45 which is a truncation mutant of DT that lacks theR domain but has the T domain and is capable of disrupting membranes.Other variants useful in the invention include DT variants that lack theR domain.

In one embodiment in which the membrane permeabilizing agent isexpressed by the host cell, the agent is preferably a protein.Alternatively in another embodiment in which the agent is appliedexternally, the membrane permeablilizing agent is a non-proteinaceouscompound. In one embodiment, a membrane permeabilizing agent which maybe expressed by the host cell may alternatively be supplied externally.For example, the membrane permeabilizing agent DT may be externallysupplied to mammalian cells. In such cases the amount of DT applied willdepend on the host cell line and the pH. For instance, more DT would besupplied at a higher pH, but less DT would be required at lower pHvalues. In one embodiment, 10⁻⁶ to 10⁻⁹ molar DT would be supplied. Inone embodiment, for microbial host cells, such as E. coli and yeast, itis desirable to remove partially or completely, the host's cell wallusing standard enzymatic and chemical procedures to producespheroplasts, which can be osmotically stabilized. The external membranepermeabilizing agent, e.g., DT is then applied. In one embodiment, DT isapplied at a concentration of 10⁻⁴ to 10⁻⁸ molar. In another embodiment,the membrane-permeabilizing agent is a colicin and the agent is appliedto E. coli at a concentration of 10⁻⁶ to 10⁻⁹ molar.

C. Small Molecular Weight Compounds

The result of the permeabilizing action of the co-expressed orexternally applied permeabilizing agent in these methods is that certainsmall molecular weight molecules can now transport freely across thecell membrane. Such small molecular weight compounds range in sizebetween about 50 to about 2000 Daltons. In one embodiment, the smallmolecular weight compounds range in size between about 75 to about 2000Daltons. In one embodiment, the small molecular weight compounds rangein size between about 100 to about 2000 Daltons. In one embodiment, thesmall molecular weight compounds range in size between about 150 toabout 2000 Daltons. In one embodiment, the small molecular weightcompounds range in size between about 200 to about 2000 Daltons. In oneembodiment, the small molecular weight compounds range in size betweenabout 250 to about 2000 Daltons. In one embodiment, the small molecularweight compounds range in size between about 350 to about 2000 Daltons.In one embodiment, the small molecular weight compounds range in sizebetween about 450 to about 2000 Daltons. In one embodiment, the smallmolecular weight compounds range in size between about 550 to about 2000Daltons. In one embodiment, the small molecular weight compounds rangein size between about 650 to about 2000 Daltons. In one embodiment, thesmall molecular weight compounds range in size between about 50 to about1750 Daltons. In one embodiment, the small molecular weight compoundsrange in size between about 50 to about 1500 Daltons. In one embodiment,the small molecular weight compounds range in size between about 50 toabout 1250 Daltons. In one embodiment, the small molecular weightcompounds range in size between about 50 to about 1000 Daltons.

In one embodiment compound that can pass through the permeabilized cellmembrane is about 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 100, 110, 120, 130, 140,150, 175, 200, 225, 250, 300, 350, 400, 450, 500, 550, 600, 700, 800,900, 1000, 1100, 1200, 1300, 1400, 1500, 1600, 1700, 1800, 1900, 2000,2100, 2200, 2300, 2400 or 2500 Daltons.

D. Macromolecules

Macromolecules which may be produced using the expression system of theinvention include, without limitation, peptides including polypeptidesand proteins, DNA and RNA. The function of the macromolecule of interestis not limited by the present method. Proteins useful in the inventioninclude, without limitation, bioactive molecules such as curative agentsfor diseases (e.g., insulin, interferon, interleukins, peptide hormones,anti-angiogenic peptides); peptides that bind to and affect definedcellular targets such as receptors, channels, lipids, cytosolicproteins, and membrane proteins; and peptides having an affinity for aparticular material (e.g., biological tissues, biological molecules),etc. Nucleic acids which may be expressed using the method of theinvention include, without limitation, DNA, RNA, antisense DNA, mRNA,tRNA, rRNA, tmRNA, siRNA, miRNA, antisense RNA, ncRNA, snRAN, snoRNA anddsRNA.

Other useful macromolecules of the invention include therapeuticproducts. These include hormones and growth and differentiation factorsincluding, without limitation, insulin, glucagon, growth hormone (GH),parathyroid hormone (PTH), growth hormone releasing factor (GRF),follicle stimulating hormone (FSH), luteinizing hormone (LH), humanchorionic gonadotropin (hCG), vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF),angiopoietins, angiostatin, granulocyte colony stimulating factor(GCSF), erythropoietin (EPO), connective tissue growth factor (CTGF),basic fibroblast growth factor (bFGF), acidic fibroblast growth factor(aFGF), epidermal growth factor (EGF), platelet-derived growth factor(PDGF), insulin growth factors I and II (IGF-I and IGF-II), any one ofthe transforming growth factor a superfamily, including TGFα, activins,inhibins, or any of the bone morphogenic proteins (BMP) BMPs 1-15, anyone of the heregluin/neuregulin/ARIA/neu differentiation factor (NDF)family of growth factors, nerve growth factor (NGF), brain-derivedneurotrophic factor (BDNF), neurotrophins NT-3 and NT-4/5, ciliaryneurotrophic factor (CNTF), glial cell line derived neurotrophic factor(GDNF), neurturin, agrin, any one of the family ofsemaphorins/collapsins, netrin-1 and netrin-2, hepatocyte growth factor(HGF), ephrins, noggin, sonic hedgehog and tyrosine hydroxylase.

Other useful macromolecules include proteins that regulate the immunesystem including, without limitation, cytokines and lymphokines such asthrombopoietin (TPO), interleukins (IL) IL-1 through IL-25 (including,e.g., IL-2, IL-4, IL-12 and IL-18), monocyte chemoattractant protein,leukemia inhibitory factor, granulocyte-macrophage colony stimulatingfactor, Fas ligand, tumor necrosis factors α and β, interferons α, β,and γ, stem cell factor, flk-2/flt3 ligand. Gene products produced bythe immune system are also useful in the invention. These include,without limitation, immunoglobulins IgG, IgM, IgA, IgD and IgE, chimericimmunoglobulins, humanized antibodies, single chain antibodies, T cellreceptors, chimeric T cell receptors, single chain T cell receptors,class I and class II MHC molecules, as well as engineeredimmunoglobulins and MHC molecules. Useful macromolecules also includecomplement regulatory proteins such as complement regulatory proteins,membrane cofactor protein (MCP), decay accelerating factor (DAF), CR1,CF2 and CD59.

Still other useful macromolecules include any one of the receptors forthe hormones, growth factors, cytokines, lymphokines, regulatoryproteins and immune system proteins. The invention encompasses receptorsfor cholesterol regulation and/or lipid modulation, including the lowdensity lipoprotein (LDL) receptor, high density lipoprotein (HDL)receptor, the very low density lipoprotein (VLDL) receptor, andscavenger receptors. The invention also encompasses gene products suchas members of the steroid hormone receptor superfamily includingglucocorticoid receptors and estrogen receptors, Vitamin D receptors andother nuclear receptors. In addition, useful gene products includetranscription factors such as jun, fos, max, mad, serum response factor(SRF), AP-1, AP2, myb, MyoD and myogenin, ETS-box containing proteins,TFE3, E2F, ATF1, ATF2, ATF3, ATF4, ZFS, NFAT, CREB, HNF-4, C/EBP, SP1,CCAAT-box binding proteins, interferon regulation factor (IRF-1), Wilmstumor protein, ETS-binding protein, STAT, GATA-box binding proteins,e.g., GATA-3, and the forkhead family of winged helix proteins.

Other useful macromolecules include, carbamoyl synthetase I, ornithinetranscarbamylase, arginosuccinate synthetase, arginosuccinate lyase,arginase, fumarylacetacetate hydrolase, phenylalanine hydroxylase,alpha-1 antitrypsin, glucose-6-phosphatase, porphobilinogen deaminase,cystathione beta-synthase, branched chain ketoacid decarboxylase,albumin, isovaleryl-coA dehydrogenase, propionyl CoA carboxylase, methylmalonyl CoA mutase, glutaryl CoA dehydrogenase, insulin,beta-glucosidase, pyruvate carboxylate, hepatic phosphorylase,phosphorylase kinase, glycine decarboxylase, H-protein, T-protein, acystic fibrosis transmembrane regulator (CFTR) sequence, and adystrophin gene product [e.g., a mini- or micro-dystrophin]. Still otheruseful macromolecules include enzymes such as may be useful in enzymereplacement therapy, which is useful in a variety of conditionsresulting from deficient activity of enzyme. For example, enzymes thatcontain mannose-6-phosphate may be utilized in therapies for lysosomalstorage diseases (e.g., a suitable gene includes that encodingβ-glucuronidase (GUSB)). Still other useful macromolecules include thoseused for treatment of hemophilia, including hemophilia B (includingFactor IX) and hemophilia A (including Factor VIII and its variants,such as the light chain and heavy chain of the heterodimer and theB-deleted domain).

Nucleic acid sequences coding for any of the above-described proteinscan be obtained using recombinant methods or by deriving the sequencefrom a vector known to include the same. Furthermore, the desiredsequence can be isolated directly from cells and tissues containing thesame, using standard techniques, such as phenol extraction and PCR ofcDNA or genomic DNA [See, e.g., Sambrook et al].

Nucleotide sequences can also be produced synthetically, rather thancloned. The complete sequence can be assembled from overlappingoligonucleotides prepared by standard methods and assembled into acomplete coding sequence [See, e.g., Edge, Nature 292:757 (1981);Nambari et al, Science, 223:1299 (1984); and Jay et al, J. Biol. Chem.259:6311 (1984).

Other useful macromolecules include non-naturally occurringpolypeptides, such as chimeric or hybrid polypeptides having anon-naturally occurring amino acid sequence containing insertions,deletions or amino acid substitutions. Other types of non-naturallyoccurring gene sequences include antisense molecules and catalyticnucleic acids, such as ribozymes, which could be used to reduceoverexpression of a target.

Suitable macromolecules may be readily selected by one of skill in theart.

E. Assembly of the Nucleic Acid Sequences, Molecules or TransportVectors

For use in the methods described herein, one or both of the selectedmacromolecule and the membrane-permeabilizing agent are infected,transformed or transfected into the selected host cell as a nucleic acidsequence or molecule. For example, in one method a first nucleic acidsequence encodes a membrane-permeabilizing agent under the operativecontrol of a first regulatory sequence that directs expression of theagent in the host cell. In another embodiment, a nucleic acid sequence(which may be referred to as a second nucleic acid sequence or moleculedepending upon which method is employed) encodes the macromolecule underthe operative control of a regulatory sequence (or second regulatorysequence) comprising a tightly regulated promoter, the regulatorysequence directing the expression of the macromolecule in the host cell.

The nucleic acid sequence encoding the macromolecule or cellpermeablizing agent is cloned into an appropriate expression vectorusing techniques that are well known in the art. See, e.g., Sambrook,cited above. As used herein, the terms “plasmid”, “vector”, “transportvector” and “expression vector” refer to an extrachromosomal elementoften carrying genes which are not part of the central metabolism of thecell, and usually in the form of circular double-stranded DNA molecules.Such elements may be autonomously replicating sequences, genomeintegrating sequences, phage or nucleotide sequences, linear orcircular, of a single- or double-stranded DNA or RNA, derived from anysource, in which a number of nucleotide sequences have been joined orrecombined into a unique construction which is capable of introducing apromoter fragment and DNA sequence for a selected gene product alongwith appropriate 3′ untranslated sequence into a cell.

Such vectors are selected from among conventional vector types known inthe art including insects, e.g., baculovirus expression, or yeast,fungal, bacterial or viral expression systems. Other appropriateexpression vectors, of which numerous types are known in the art, canalso be used for this purpose. Methods for obtaining such expressionvectors are well-known. In one embodiment of the invention, the firstnucleic acid sequence or the second nucleic acid sequence is presentindependently in a transport vector, which is a plasmid, a bacteriophageor a virus. In a preferred embodiment, the vector is a plasmid with aselectable marker, e.g., an antibiotic resistance gene. See, Sambrook etal, cited above; Miller et al, 1986 Genetic Engineering, 8:277-298 andreferences cited therein.

In the first method of the invention, which involves the insertion of anucleic acid sequence encoding the macromolecule and a nucleic acidsequence encoding the agent, it may be necessary to utilize plasmidscontaining separate selectable markers. By utilizing a first selectablemarker in the first plasmid, the transformed/tranfected cells may becultured or plated on medium containing the selection agent. In oneembodiment, the selection agent is an antibiotic or antifungal. Inanother embodiment, a second selectable marker is included on the secondplasmid. By utilizing a second selection agent, it is possible to selecthost cells containing both plasmids. The final result is a host cellcontaining two DNA segments: one segment encodes the protein acting asthe membrane-permeabilizing agent and the second segment encodes thedesired macromolecule for production.

The plasmid vector also includes regulatory sequences that directexpression of the agent or macromolecule in the host cell. In someembodiments of the invention, the plasmids (or other vectors carryingthe sequences encoding the macromolecule or agent) include sequencespermitting replication of the minigene in eukaryotes and/or prokaryotesand selection markers for these systems. These include conventionalcontrol elements which are operably linked to sequences encoding theagent or macromolecule in a manner which permits its transcription,translation and/or expression in a cell transformed or transfected withthe plasmid vector. In one embodiment, the first plasmid includes anucleic acid sequence encoding a membrane-permeabilizing agent under theoperative control of a regulatory sequence that directs expression ofthe agent in the host cell. As used herein, “operative control” meansthat a nucleic acid sequence is situated in such a way with expressioncontrol, or regulatory sequences, such that the regulatory sequencesdirect expression of the nucleic acid sequence of interest. Regulatorysequences may be contiguous with the nucleic acid of interest or theregulatory sequences may be in trans or at a distance to control thenucleic acid of interest.

In another embodiment, the first or second plasmid includes a nucleicacid sequence encoding the macromolecule under the operative control ofa second regulatory sequence comprising an inducible promoter, theregulatory sequence directing the expression of the macromolecule in thehost cell. In yet another embodiment, the inducible promoter is atightly regulated promoter.

Regulatory sequences include appropriate transcription initiation,termination, promoter and enhancer sequences; efficient RNA processingsignals such as splicing and polyadenylation (polyA) signals; sequencesthat stabilize cytoplasmic mRNA; sequences that enhance translationefficiency (i.e., Kozak consensus sequence); sequences that enhanceprotein stability; and when desired, sequences that enhance secretion ofthe encoded product. A great number of expression control sequences,including promoters which are native, constitutive, inducible and/ortissue-specific, are known in the art and may be utilized.

Regulatory sequences useful in the invention include any promotercapable of driving expression of the sequences of macromolecule ofinterest and, in the case of co-expression, the membrane-permeabilizingagent. This includes, but is not limited to: viral promoters, bacterialpromoters, plant promoters, synthetic promoters, constitutive promoters,tissue specific promoters, developmental specific promoters, induciblepromoters, lightly regulated promoters, tightly regulated promoters, andpathogenesis or disease related promoters. A number of such usefulpromoters may be found in conventional texts on recombinant proteinexpression or a variety of known scientific publications. Lists ofsuitable promoters and enhancers, selectable marker genes, origin ofreplication, amplicons, and other conventional components of plasmidvectors may be found in such publications as, e.g., Sambrook, citedabove, and others, incorporated by reference herein.

In certain embodiments of the invention, the promoter of the firstplasmid is a “leaky” promoter, e.g., an inducible promoter that exhibitsvariable levels of expression in the absence of the inducing agent orcondition. In other embodiments of the invention, the first regulatorysequence comprises a constitutive promoter. In other embodiments of theinvention, the first regulatory sequence comprises an induciblepromoter. In another embodiment of the invention, the second regulatorysequence comprises a promoter different from that of the firstregulatory sequence. In one embodiment, the second regulatory sequencecomprises an inducible promoter different from that of the firstregulatory sequence. In some embodiments of the invention, theexpression of the agent is low to prevent unwanted cell toxicity orlysis.

In one embodiment, the promoter of the first plasmid is a constitutivepromoter, e.g., a promoter that causes a gene to be expressed in mostcell types at most times, so that the host cell transformed with thisplasmid is continually producing the plasmid components. For example,certain constitutive promoters that are useful in the plasmid expressingthe macromolecule include, without limitation, the retroviral Roussarcoma virus (RSV) LTR promoter (optionally with the RSV enhancer), thecytomegalovirus (CMV) promoter (optionally with the CMV enhancer) [see,e.g., Boshart et al, Cell, 41:521-530 (1985)], the SV40 promoter, thedihydrofolate reductase promoter, the β-actin promoter, thephosphoglycerol kinase (PGK) promoter, and the EF1α promoter[Invitrogen].

In certain embodiments of the invention, the promoter of the first orsecond, or both, plasmid(s) may be inducible or regulatable, e.g.,causes expression of the nucleic acid sequence following exposure ortreatment of the cell with an agent, biological molecule, chemical,ligand, light, or some other stimulus. Inducible promoters and induciblesystems are available from a variety of commercial sources, including,without limitation, Invitrogen, Clontech and Ariad. Many other systemshave been described and can be readily selected by one of skill in theart. A non-limiting list of such inducible promoters include the PR 1-apromoter, prokaryotic repressor-operator systems, and higher eukaryotictranscription activation systems, such as described in detail in U.S.Pat. No. 7,091,038. Such promoters include the tetracycline (“Tet”) andlactose (“Lac”) repressor-operator systems from E. coli. Other induciblepromoters include the drought-inducible promoter of maize; the cold,drought, and high salt inducible promoter from potato, the senescenceinducible promoter of Arabidopsis, SAG 12, and the embryogenesis relatedpromoters of LEC1, LEC2, FUS3, AtSERK1, and AGLI5S, all known to thoseof skill in the art. Still other inducible promoters include thezinc-inducible sheep metallothionine (MT) promoter and the dexamethasone(Dex)-inducible mouse mammary tumor virus (MMTV) promoter. Otherinducible systems include the T7 polymerase promoter system [WO98/10088]; the ecdysone insect promoter [No et al, Proc. Natl. Acad.Sci. USA, 93:3346-3351 (1996)], the tetracycline-repressible system[Gossen et al, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 89:5547-5551 (1992)], thetetracycline-inducible system [Gossen et al, Science, 268:1766-1769(1995), see also Harvey et al, Curr. Opin. Chem. Biol., 2:512-518(1998)]. Other systems include the FK506 dimer, VP16 or p65 usingcastradiol, diphenol murislerone, the RU486-inducible system [Wang etal, Nat. Biotech., 15:239-243 (1997) and Wang et al, Gene Ther.,4:432-441 (1997)] and the rapamycin-inducible system [Magari et al, J.Clin. Invest., 100:2865-2872 (1997)]. Still other promoters include therhaT promoter (Giacalone et al, BioTechniques, 40(3):355-63 (2006). Atightly regulated promoter is an inducible promoter which does not allowany detectable expression in the absence of the inducing agent orcondition or is able to be repressed using a second reagent orcondition. In one embodiment, the regulatory sequence operably linked tothe nucleic acid sequence encoding the macromolecule is a tightlyregulated promoter.

In a further embodiment of the invention, the vector or plasmidcontaining the selected nucleic acid sequence is delivered to the hostcell by any suitable method, including those described herein. Themethods used to construct any embodiment of this invention are known tothose with skill in nucleic acid manipulation and include geneticengineering, recombinant engineering, and synthetic techniques. See,e.g., Sambrook et al, Molecular Cloning: A Laboratory Manual, ColdSpring Harbor Press, Cold Spring Harbor, N.Y. In one embodiment, theplasmid(s) containing the nucleic acid sequence encoding themacromolecule or agent are transferred to the host cell using chloridesalts of metal cations such as calcium, rubidium or magnesium. Inanother embodiment, the plasmid(s) containing the nucleic acid sequenceencoding the macromolecule or agent are transferred to the host cellusing electroporation.

F. Culturing the Transfected Host Cell

One advantage of the present invention is that it is scaleable andcapable of producing large quantities of recombinant macromolecule.According to the present methods, the host cells are grown to high celldensities by conventional means prior to treatment externally with, orinduction or activation of intracellularly-produced,membrane-permeabilizing agent. Thus, sufficient quantities ofrecombinant macromolecules are obtained by adjusting the cell density ofthe host cell.

In either embodiment of the methods described herein, the host cellcontaining one or both of the nucleic acid sequences or moleculesdescribed above is cultured to a desired cell density sufficient to meetthe desired production levels of the macromolecule. In one embodiment,the cell density is that considered suitable for production of themacromolecule corresponds to an OD₅₉₅ of 0.3 to 100. In one embodiment,the cell density is that considered suitable for production of themacromolecule corresponds to an OD₅₉₅ of 0.3 to 3.0. In one embodiment,the cell density is that considered suitable for production of themacromolecule corresponds to an OD₅₉₅ of 20 to 100. In one embodiment,the cell density that is considered suitable for production of themacromolecule corresponds to an OD₅₉₅ of 50-100. In one embodiment, thecell density that is considered suitable for production of themacromolecule corresponds to an OD₅₉₅ of 75-100. In one embodiment, theOD₅₉₅ is 0.3. In one embodiment, the OD₅₉₅ is 0.4. In one embodiment,the OD₅₉₅ is 0.5. In one embodiment, the OD₅₉₅ is 0.6. In oneembodiment, the OD₅₉₅ is 0.7. In one embodiment, the OD₅₉₅ is 0.8. Inone embodiment, the OD₅₉₅ is 0.9. In one embodiment, the OD₅₉₅ is 1.0.In one embodiment, the OD₅₉₅ is 2.0. In one embodiment, the OD₅₉₅ is3.0. In one embodiment, the OD₅₉₅ is 4.0. In one embodiment, the OD₅₉₅is 5.0. In one embodiment, the OD₅₉₅ is 6.0. In one embodiment, theOD₅₉₅ is 7.0. In one embodiment, the OD₅₉₅ is at least 20. In oneembodiment, the OD₅₉₅ is 30. In one embodiment, the OD₅₉₅ is 40. In oneembodiment, the OD₅₉₅ is 50. In one embodiment, the OD₅₉₅ is 60. In oneembodiment, the OD₅₉₅ is 70. In one embodiment, the OD₅₉₅ is 80. In oneembodiment, the OD₅₉₅ is 90. In one embodiment, the OD₅₉₅ is 100. Insome embodiments, the cells are harvested during exponential growthphase, to ensure optimum metabolic function when the cell membrane's arepermeabilized.

In any of the methods, the culture conditions are dependent upon thetype of host cell being used and can readily be determined by oneskilled in the art. For example, in one embodiment, when the host cellis E. coli, the cells are optimally grown at 37° C. in Luria Bertranibroth. In some embodiments, it may be desirous to grow the cells at roomtemperature. In some embodiments, the cells are grown at large scale,e.g., in a fermenter. In another embodiment, when the host cells arehuman HEK293 cells, the cells are optimally grown in Dulbecco'sModification of Eagle's Medium (DMEM) at 37° C. with 5% CO₂. The time ofincubation may be readily determined by one of skill in the art. In oneembodiment, the cells are cultured overnight, e.g., from 8-14 hours.

During this culturing step, it is desired that the macromolecule,preferably under the control of a tightly regulated promoter, is notexpressed to detectable levels. This culture step permits accumulationof the permeabilizing agent in proximity to the cell membrane. Forexample, in bacterial host cells, this culturing step permitsaccumulation of the agent in the periplasmic space.

In one embodiment of these methods, the host cells, once cultured to adesired density, may be concentrated or harvested prior to any inducingenvironmental condition and culturing the cells in the presence of thenutrient cocktail. Techniques for harvesting cells are well known in theart. Briefly, in one embodiment, after the transformed cells have beenplated on agar plates containing an appropriate selection antibiotic, asingle colony is selected and grown overnight in appropriate medium. Thebroth is then poured into a plastic centrifuge bottle and spun at 5,000rpm for 15 minutes to pellet the cells. The supernatant is then pouredoff. The cells are then resuspended in a desired amount of medium orbuffer. In another embodiment, the transformed mammalian cells areseeded in an appropriately sized flask. The cells are grown at thedesired temperature, e.g., 37° C., in an appropriate medium and allowedto come to the desired level of confluency. In the case of adherentcells, the media is then aspirated and the cells are detached from theflask with or without the use of trypsin and resuspended in the desiredvolume of media. In the case of suspension cells, the media containingthe cells is spun down, and the pelleted cells are resuspended in anappropriate volume of media or buffer.

G. Environmental Conditions that Trigger the Permeabilizing Activity

In one embodiment of the method, the host cell at the desired density,or optionally spun down and concentrated by removal of broth, is exposedto an environmental condition that induces the membrane permeabilizingagent to disrupt the integrity of the cell membrane without completelysis of the cell membrane. This disruption allows transport through themembrane of small molecular weight compounds. Themembrane-permeabilizing agent must not lyse the host cells, but insteadrenders the host cell's membrane selective only for size, i.e., themembrane remains a barrier for large molecules, e.g., enzymes, but adiversity of small molecular weight compounds can readily move into thehost cell.

In one embodiment of the method, in which the membrane permeabilizingagent is encoded by a plasmid contained within the cell, environmentalconditions are altered to trigger the permeabilizing activity of theagent that has accumulated within the host cell. In another embodiment,in which only the plasmid controlling expression of the macromolecule iscarried by the host cell, the environmental condition includescontacting the host cell with an externally applied permeabilizing agentwith optionally additional environmental conditions.

According to the production methods described herein, the environmentalconditions that trigger the permeabilizing activity of thepermeabilizing agent include at least one of the following conditions:altering the pH, altering salt concentration, altering osmotic pressure,altering the temperature, exposing the host cell to light, and exposingthe host cell to an agent, biological molecule, chemical, or ligand.

In one embodiment of the methods described herein, altering the pHcomprises lowering the pH to about 4 to 6.5. In one embodiment, the pHis lowered from the neutral pH of the culturing step to the lower pH.For example, in one embodiment, the pH is lowered to about 4.

In another embodiment, the pH is lowered to about 4.5. In anotherembodiment, the pH is lowered to about 5.0. In another embodiment, thepH is lowered to about 5.5. In another embodiment, the pH is lowered toabout 6.0. In another embodiment, the pH is lowered to about 6.5. Stillother pH values intermediate between 4 and 6.5 may be selected as theenvironmental condition in this step.

In another embodiment of the methods described herein, the agent,biological molecule, chemical or ligand that causes the environmentalcondition includes without limitation, a reducing agent, an oxidizingagent, an acid, a base, or a salt. Examples of reducing agents which maybe used in the invention include, without limitation, NADH,acetaldehyde, beta-mercaptoethanol and dithiothreitol. Examples ofoxidizing agents which may be used in the invention include, withoutlimitation, NAD⁺, H₂O₂, and MnO⁻. Examples of acids which may be used inthe invention include, without limitation, acetic acid, hydrochloricacid, sulfuric acid, etc.

In another embodiment, the agent, biological molecule, chemical orligand that causes the environmental condition includes a chaotrope.Examples of chaotropic agents which may be useful in the invention,include, without limitation, urea, thiourea, guanidinium chloride, andlithium perchlorate.

In another embodiment, the agent, biological molecule, chemical orligand that causes the environmental condition includes a surfactant.Examples of surfactants which may be useful in the invention, include,without limitation, polysorbates, sorbitan esters, poloxamer, or sodiumlauryl sulfate.

In another embodiment, the agent, biological molecule, chemical orligand that causes the environmental condition includes an agent thatinduces the inducible promoter of the first regulatory sequence, if themembrane permeabilizing agent is under the control of an induciblepromoter within the host cell. The agent that induces the induciblepromoter is specific to the selected promoter. The selection of theinducing agent is well within the skill of the art. Inducing agentswhich may be used in the current invention, include, without limitation,IPTG, alcohol, tetracycline, steroids, metal and other compounds.

In the embodiment of the method in which the host cell does not expressthe permeabilizing agent, the environmental conditions further includeexposing the host cell to a membrane permeabilizing agent, such as thosedescribed above. The other environmental conditions or agents causingsame as itemized above, may optionally be contacted with the host cellsat the same time as the permeabilizing agent or within a short time,e.g., 5 to 30 minutes, after the permeabilizing agent has been applied.

In some embodiments, it may be desired to optimize the amount,concentration, or activity of the membrane permeabilizing agent. Theeffectiveness of the membrane-permeabilizing agent may be assessed byexamining membrane function. In one embodiment, this is accomplished byexamining Proline transport, membrane potential, or ⁸⁶Rb efflux. Areduction in Proline transport, membrane potential, or ⁸⁶Rb retention ofabout 95% indicates that the membrane has been permeabilized. Thedetermination of the level of permeabilization may include assessment ofthe amount of macromolecular production, e.g., as described in detail inExample 4.

H. Nutrient Cocktail

Once the integrity of the cell's membrane is disrupted by theperformance of the methods described above, the normal metabolicactivities of the host cell are compromised. With the permeabilitybarrier of the host cell's membrane compromised by themembrane-permeabilizing agent, the host cell's interior environment willequilibrate with the host cell's external environment. As such, themethods involve supplementing the milieu of the host cell with acocktail of nutrients to alter the interior of the host cell to createan intracellular environment that is conducive to producing the specificmacromolecule of interest. The methods involve controlling the internalenvironment of the cell by adjusting the external environment of thecell. The cocktail includes nutrients required for the host cell tocarry out the required metabolic reactions to produce the desiredmacromolecule.

Thus, in all embodiments of the methods described herein, the host cell,once its cell membrane has been permeabilized as described above, iscultured in the presence of a nutrient cocktail comprising componentsthat can transport through the disrupted cell membrane. These componentsinclude an inducing agent that induces the promoter of the secondregulatory sequence and other metabolic requirements that permitexpression of the macromolecule in the membrane-disrupted host cell. Inone embodiment, the nutrient cocktail comprises a completely definedmedium, with the concentration and identity of each componentspecifically chosen. In another embodiment, the nutrient cocktailcomprises a standard medium (e.g., LB broth) supplemented with desiredcomponents (e.g., nucleotides). One of skill in the art can determinethe appropriate cocktail based on the specific conditions desired.

In one embodiment, the nutrient cocktail is at a specific pH of betweenpH 4-10 and salt concentration of about 10 to 500 mM. In someembodiments, the salt concentration is about 50 to 150 mM, includingconcentration values therebetween). In some embodiments, the pH is about7.0 to 7.5, including pH values therebetween.

The nutrient cocktails employed in the herein-described methods compriseone or more components that can be transported through the permeabilizedcell membrane to supply the cell with the components and conditionsnecessary for expression of the encoded macromolecule.

In one embodiment, one essential component of the cocktail is aninducing agent to induce the promoter (e.g., L-rhamnose to induce therhaT promoter) that controls expression of the macromolecule.Surfactants may be added to increase the permeability of the membrane.Still other components include without limitation, salts, a chemicalenergy source, e.g., adenosine triphosphate (ATP), stabilizers, aminoacids, ribonucleotides, co-factors, deoxyribonucleotides, and unnaturalamino acids. Still other small molecules or environmental factorsnecessary to produce the macromolecule include, without limitation,osmolytes including trimethylamine N-oxide (TMAO),dimethylsulfoniopropionate, trimethylglycine, sarcosine; and redoxaltering reagents such as oxidized and reduced glutathione. One of skillin the art may readily select other small molecule components for thenutrient cocktail depending upon the identity of the host cell,macromolecule, and other conditions of the culture.

In some embodiments, the concentration of the osmolyte(s) and/orstabilizers in the nutrient cocktail ranges from 0.1 mM to 1M. In otherembodiments, the concentration of the osmolyte(s) and/or stabilizers inthe nutrient cocktail ranges from 1 mM to 1M. In other embodiments, theconcentration of the salts, chemical energy source, e.g., adenosinetriphosphate (ATP), stabilizers, amino acids, ribonucleotides,co-factors, deoxyribonucleotides, and/or inducing agent in the cocktailranges from 0.1 nM to 1 mM. In still other embodiments, theconcentration of these components ranges from 1 nM to 0.5 mM. In oneembodiment, the concentration is 1 nM.

Once the nutrient cocktail is provided to the permeabilized host cells,the cells are, in one embodiment, cultured or held at a suitabletemperature, usually between 20-40° C., for a sufficient time period topermit the cell to metabolize the macromolecule. In one embodiment, asufficient time is overnight, or e.g., about 8 hours. Other suitabletime periods include 1 to 4 hours, 5-10 hours, 12-24 hours or longer.According to these methods, the macromolecule is thereby expressed inthe host cell.

Still other embodiments of either method can employ conventional stepsto recover the expressed macromolecule from the host cell. Techniquesfor recovering the expressed macromolecule are well known in the art andinclude gel electrophoresis, ion-exchange chromatography, size-exclusionchromatography, reversed-phase HPLC, affinity and immunoaffinitychromatography, and metal chelate affinity chromatography. See, e.g.,Sambrook, Molecular Cloning, 3^(rd) Ed. (2001) and Simpson et al (Eds),Basic Methods in Protein Purification and Analysis: A Laboratory Manual(2008). With regard to polypeptides and proteins, many expressionsystems are available which “tag” the expressed protein to allow forease of purification using various techniques. Affinity tags areappended to proteins so that they can be purified from their crudebiological source using an affinity technique. Chromatography tags areused to alter chromatographic properties of the protein to afforddifferent resolution across a particular separation technique. Epitopetags are short peptide sequences which are chosen because high-affinityantibodies can be reliably produced in many different species. These areusually derived from viral genes, which explain their highimmunoreactivity. These tags are particularly useful for westernblotting and immunoprecipitation experiments, although they also finduse in antibody purification to allow purification using affinitychromatography. Specific protein tagging systems useful in the inventioninclude, without limitation, polyhistidine-tag (HIS), Calmodulin BindingProtein (CBP), CYD (covalent yet dissociable NorpD peptide), Strep II,FLAG, HPC (heavy chain of protein C) peptide tags,glutathione-S-transferase (GST), chitin binding protein (CBP), andmaltose binding protein (MBP) systems. Epitope tags include V5-tag,c-myc-tag, and HA-tag. One of skill in the art can readily select theappropriate macromolecule recovery method.

Given the teachings described herein, one of skill in the art canreadily adjust the concentration and amounts of all reagents used in themethod, as well as adjust the time and temperature conditions to achieveto optimize the production of the macromolecule, based on the selectionof the macromolecule and cell permeablizing agent. Based upon theselection of the host cell, macromolecule and permeabilizing agent,given the teachings of this invention, one of skill in the art canoptimize the culture conditions, selection of nutrient cocktailcomponents, selection of environmental conditions, amounts andconcentrations of the components used in the method, and otherparameters of the method using the knowledge of the art. For example,one can readily determine optimal permeablility for any selected systemusing the assays described in Example 4.

As shown above, the present invention provides several advantages overknown expression systems. Unlike the conventional cell-free expressionsystems, the presently described methods do not require a second systemto prepare DNA templates (where the macromolecule is a protein orpolypeptide) since the template is replicated during host cell growth.In addition, there is no loss in the capacity to produce macromoleculesin the present invention during storage since cryopreservation of hostcells for long periods of time is a well established art. Anotheradvantage of the present invention is that it is scaleable and capableof producing large quantities of recombinant macromolecule. Host cellsystems can be grown to high cell densities by conventional means priorto treatment with the membrane-permeabilizing agent. Thus, sufficientquantities of recombinant macromolecules can be obtained by adjustingthe cell density of the host cell. Further, because the cells can beconcentrated before induction of the macromolecule, the amount ofreagents used may be greatly reduced.

The methods described herein create conditions inside the host cell thatare conducive to the recombinant macromolecule obtaining its correctstructure. The internal environment of the cell can be controlled byadjusting the external environment of the cell. With the permeabilitybarrier of the host cell's membrane compromised by themembrane-permeabilizing agent, the host cell's interior environment willequilibrate with the host cell's external environment. Thus, the hostcell's internal pH, osmolarity, redox potential, or concentration ofstabilizers can be adjusted by changing the host cell's externalenvironment. Providing the appropriate environment enables the in situproduction of macromolecules with the correct structure.

III. Drug Screening Methods

A further advantage of the present invention is that it will allow forin situ drug screening. For example, a library of appropriately-modifiedrecombinant proteins could be produced in a host cell system using theabove-described production methods. Subsequent to the production of themacromolecule within the host cells as described in the methods above,the host cells can be treated with a variety of small molecular drugs,which would pass through the compromised host cell's membrane. Suchsmall drugs, in one embodiment, are those desired to bind to themodified recombinant macromolecule, e.g., proteins. In other embodimentsof the screening methods, other small drugs are those designed totrigger some signaling event or another activity of the expressedmacromolecule. Conventional methods are then used to identify those hostcells that contain recombinant molecules, e.g., proteins, bound to thesmall drug. Other conventional methods are those designed to measure theproduction levels or other activity of the macromolecule, etc.

As used herein, the term “drug” can refer to pharmaceutical ornon-pharmaceutical compounds or substrates which are assessed for someproperty associated with the production or activity of themacromolecule. For example, the macromolecule of interest can be anindustrial enzyme (e.g., xylanase) or a diagnostic enzyme (e.g., DNApolymerase (PCR enzyme)). In this embodiment, a library of variants iscreated in E. coli in search for a variant that has desirableproperties. For xylanase, the substrate is a polysaccharide beta1,4-xylan.

Thus, in one embodiment, a method for in situ drug screening includesculturing in each well of a mini-well plate host cells containing (i) afirst nucleic acid sequence encoding a membrane-permeabilizing agentunder the operative control of a first regulatory sequence that directsexpression of the agent in the host cells; and (ii) a second nucleicacid sequence encoding the macromolecule under the operative control ofa second regulatory sequence comprising an inducible promoter, theregulatory sequence directing the expression of the macromolecule in thehost cell. The second nucleic acid sequence in the host cells of eachwell encodes a different macromolecule. The co-transformed host cellsare cultured to a selected cell density that permits accumulation of theagent.

The host cells in each well are then exposed to an environmentalcondition suitable to induce the agent to disrupt the integrity of thecell membrane without complete lysis of the membrane, and therebyallowing transport through the membrane of small molecular weightcompounds. Subsequently, the host cells in each well are cultured in thepresence of a nutrient cocktail comprising components that can transportthrough the disrupted cell membrane, the components comprising aninducing agent that induces the promoter of the second regulatorysequence of the cells in each well; and metabolic requirements thatpermit expression of the macromolecule in the membrane-disrupted hostcells of each well, wherein the macromolecules are expressed in the hostcells of each well.

In one embodiment, each well is treated with a small molecular weighttest reagent that can transport through the cell membrane beforeinduction of the second promoter. In another embodiment, each well istreated with a small molecular weight test reagent that can transportthrough the cell membrane after induction of the second promoter. Inanother embodiment, the host cells in each well may be fully lysed bycontact with a conventional lysing reagent prior to treating the cellswith the test reagent. The amount of such agent may be determined by oneskill in the art, but may generally be between about 0.01 micromolar(0.01 μM) to 1 mM. The purpose of adding the test reagent is to assessits impact on the production of the desired macromolecule or todetermine the specific residue(s) responsible for binding of themacromolecule and the test reagent. For example, in one embodiment, thetest reagent binds certain variants of a macromolecule and not others.In another embodiment, the test reagent may trigger a signal event inthe culture for one macromolecule variant and not the others. Theidentity of the macromolecule variant that responds to (e.g., is boundby) the presence of the test reagent is thereafter determined by aconventional assay that identifies and/or quantifies the macromoleculevariant produced in each well.

In still another embodiment, the in situ testing method involves similarsteps to those above, except that each well contains the same host cellsco-transfected by the same two plasmids, i.e., the same macromolecule isexpressed in each well. As described above, the cell is permeabilized bycontact with the environmental condition, and contacted with thenutrient cocktail. However, in this embodiment, each well is treatedwith a different test reagent, i.e., from a library of test compounds.The conventional assay is thereafter used to determine which testreagent impacted the production of the macromolecule or bound to themacromolecule in the same manner as described above.

In yet a further embodiment, the second production method may beemployed in the screening assay. The host cell contains only a singleplasmid with a nucleic acid sequence encoding the macromolecule (orvariants of macromolecules). The cells are cultured to a desired densityin each well of a multi-well plate prior to contact with the externallyapplied permeabilizing agent and/or environmental condition that inducesthe permeabilizing event. The library of test reagents (or a single testreagent) may then be applied at the same time, or sometime after, thepermeabilized cells in each well are contacted with the nutrientcocktails as defined above. A conventional assay performed on thecontents of each well will determine which test reagent induces aresponse in a single macromolecule or which variant of the macromoleculeresponds to single test reagent, in the manner described above.

IV. EXAMPLES

The following examples demonstrate the use of the compositions andmethods of the invention.

Example 1 Method of Production of Acidic Fibroblast Growth Factor (aFGF)A. Construction of the Host Cells Containing Two Nucleic Acid Moleculesfor Co-Expression of the Membrane Permeabilizing Agent and theMacromolecule

DNA sequences encoding as the membrane permeabilizing agent, an intactdiphtheria toxin (DT) gene containing a 3-base pair mutation in anactive site residue (E148S), resulting in a hypotoxic, attenuatedversion of DT called DT-E148S. This nucleic acid sequence is assembledusing conventional techniques and as described in O'Keefe and Collier,PNAS, 86:343-6 (1989).

This sequence is cloned into the pF1KT7-Flexi™ plasmid vector (Promega)behind an inducible T7 promoter. The T7 promoter is inducible withisopropyl β-D-thiogalactopyranoside (IPTG), but exhibits a basal levelof expression (leaky expression) in the absence of IPTG. ThepF1KT7-Flexi™ vector contains a selectable marker kan^(r) (for kanamycinresistance) which allows for identification of a successfullytransfected E. coli host.

This “first” plasmid containing DT-E148S (pDT-E148S) is transformed intocompetent E. coli host cells and streaked on LB agar containing 50 μg/mlof kanamycin and grown overnight at 37° C. A single colony is selectedand grown for 15 hours at 37° C. in 15 mL LB broth containing kanamycin.The cells are pelleted and used for the next step.

A “second” plasmid, the pRHA plasmid is constructed as described inGiacalone et al, 2006, Biotechniques, 40(3):355-63. The pRHA plasmidcontains a selectable marker amp^(r) (for ampicillin resistance) whichallows for identification of a successfully transfected E. coli host.DNA sequences encoding the macromolecule, protein aFGF, are cloned intothe pRHA plasmid behind the rhaT promoter. Optionally, the protein istagged with GST or a histidine tag for later purification from the hostcells. The rhaT promoter is a tightly regulated promoter, inducible bythe addition of L-rhamnose and repressed by the presence of D-glucose.This “second” plasmid comprising the nucleic acid sequence encoding thetarget macromolecule is transformed into E. coli cells containing the“first” plasmid encoding the membrane permeabilizing agent DT-E148S. Theco-transformed E. coli host cells are streaked on LB agar containingampicillin and kanamycin and grown overnight at 37° C. to select forcells containing both plasmids. A single colony is selected and grownfor 15 hours at 37° C. in 15 mL LB broth containing ampicillin andkanamycin.

B. Culturing of the Host Cells to a Selected Density

The E. coli is cultured in LB broth, which is supplemented with 0.2%D-glucose to repress expression of the macromolecule, but permitexpression of the DT-E148S. During this time, the E. coli host cell isexpressing DT-E148S due to its leaky promoter and localizing it in thecell's periplasmic space due to its leader sequence. When the host cellsreach a selected cell density of OD₅₉₅ of 1.0, which is the cell densitygenerally selected to maximize production of the macromolecule, the E.coli host cells are harvested and the broth is poured off.

C. Permeabilizing the Host Cells

The cells are then exposed to an environmental condition that inducesthe permeabilizing agent to disrupt the integrity of the cell membranewithout complete lysis of the cell membrane. In this experiment, thecells are resuspended in acidic buffer (sodium succinate) to lower thepH to about 5.0 for about 5 minutes. Without wishing to be bound bytheory, the acidic medium induces a conformation change in theperiplasmic DT-E148S molecule that allows it to insert into the cellmembrane and disrupt its integrity without completely lysing the hostcells. This disruption of the cell membrane thereby allows transportthrough the membrane of small molecular weight compounds, e.g., smallmolecules of about 50 to 2000 Daltons.

D. Producing the Macromolecule

After permeabilization occurs, the acidic buffer is exchanged for LB anda nutrient cocktail that includes L-rhamnose, which induces the rhaTpromoter, as well as other small molecule compounds required formetabolism of the permeabilized cell and production of the protein aFGFin the membrane-disrupted cells. These molecules are of a size that cantransport through the disrupted cell membrane. Such components in thiscase include ATP, amino acids, and ribonucleotides. Each component isadded to a concentration of about 1 mM. The induced cells are kept at37° C. overnight. The cells are pelleted and lysed and themacromolecular protein aFGF is purified using conventionalchromatography methods.

Example 2 Method of Production of Fibroblast Growth Factor 20 (FGF-20)A. Construction of Host Cells Containing a Nucleic Acid Molecule forExpression of a Macromolecule

The pRHA plasmid, constructed as described in Giacalone et al, 2006,Biotechniques, 40(3):355-63, contains a selectable marker ampr (forampicillin resistance) which allows for identification of a successfullytransfected E. coli host. DNA sequences encoding the macromolecule,protein FGF-20, are cloned into the pRHA plasmid behind the rhaTpromoter. Optionally, the protein is tagged with GST or a histidine tagfor later purification from the host cells. The rhaT promoter is atightly regulated promoter, inducible by the addition of L-rhamnose andrepressed by the presence of D-glucose. This plasmid comprising thenucleic acid sequence encoding the target macromolecule is transformedinto competant E. coli cells. The transformed E. coli host cells arestreaked on LB agar containing 50 μg/ml ampicillin and grown overnightat 37° C. to select for cells containing the plasmid. A single colony isselected and grown for 15 hours at 37° C. in 15 mL LB broth containingampicillin. The cells are pelleted and used for the next step.

B. Culturing of the Host Cells to a Selected Density

The E. coli is cultured in LB broth, which is supplemented with 0.2%D-glucose to repress expression of the macromolecule. When the hostcells reach a selected cell density of OD₅₉₅ of 1.0, which is the celldensity generally selected to maximize production of the macromolecule,the E. coli host cells are harvested and the broth is poured off.

C. Permeabilizing the Host Cells

The cells are then exposed to an externally added permeabilizing agentColicin Y under an environmental condition sufficient to disrupt theintegrity of the cell membrane without complete lysis of the cellmembrane. In this experiment, the harvested E. coli are then resuspendedin neutral buffer and treated with 2 μg/mL of the permeabilizing agent,Colicin Y, for about 5 minutes. This treatment disrupts the integrity ofthe cell membrane without completely lysing the host cells. Thisdisruption of the cell membrane thereby allows transport through themembrane of small molecular weight compounds, e.g., small molecules ofabout 50 to 2000 Daltons.

D. Producing the Macromolecule

After permeabilization occurs, the neutral buffer is exchanged for LBand a nutrient cocktail that includes L-rhamnose, which induces the rhaTpromoter, as well as other small molecule compounds required formetabolism of the permeabilized cell and production of the proteinFGF-20 in the membrane-disrupted cells. These molecules are of a sizethat can transport through the disrupted cell membrane. Such componentsin this case include ATP, amino acids, and ribonucleotides, which areadded at a concentration of about 1 mM. The induced cells are kept at37° C. overnight. The cells are pelleted and lysed and themacromolecular protein FGF-20 is purified using conventionalchromatography methods.

Example 3 In Situ Drug Screening A. Construction of the Host CellsContaining Two Nucleic Acid Molecules for Co-Expression of the MembranePermeabilizing Agent and the Macromolecule

Competent E coli host cells are transfected with plasmid pDT-E148S asdescribed in Example 1. Variants of protein 5-alpha reductase areobtained and cloned, separately, into a pRHA plasmid behind the rhaTpromoter, as described in Example 1, providing a library of pRHAplasmids differing only in the protein 5-alpha reductase variant encodedthereby. Each plasmid containing a protein variant coding sequence istransformed into E. coli cells containing pDT-E148S. The transformedcells are streaked on LB agar containing ampicillin and kanamycin andgrown overnight at 37° C. to select for cells containing both plasmids.A single colony of host cells carrying each variant is selected andgrown for 15 hours at 37° C. in 15 mL LB broth containing ampicillin andkanamycin.

B. Culturing of the Host Cells to a Selected Density

The variant E. coli host cells are plated in a 96-well plate, each platecontaining a different variant. Each E. coli in the wells is cultured inLB broth, which is supplemented with 0.2% D-glucose to repressexpression of the macromolecule variant, but permit expression of theDT-E148S, which accumulates in the periplasm of the host cell. When thehost cells reach a selected cell density of OD₅₉₅ of 1.0, the E. colihost cells are harvested and the broth is poured off.

C. Permeabilizing the Host Cells

The cells in each well are resuspended in acidic buffer (sodiumsuccinate) to lower the pH to about 5.0 for about 5 minutes. Withoutwishing to be bound by theory, the acidic medium induces a conformationchange in the periplasmic DT-E148S molecule that allows it to insertinto the cell membrane and disrupt its integrity without completelylysing the host cells. This disruption of the cell membrane therebyallows transport through the membrane of small molecular weightcompounds, e.g., small molecules of about 50 to 2000 Daltons.

D. Producing the Macromolecule

After permeabilization occurs, the acidic buffer in each well isexchanged for LB and a nutrient cocktail that includes L-rhamnose, whichinduces the rhaT promoter, as well as other small molecule compoundsrequired for metabolism of the permeabilized cell and production of theprotein 5-alpha reductase in the membrane-disrupted cells. Thesemolecules are of a size that can transport through the disrupted cellmembrane. Such components in this case include ATP, amino acids, andribonucleotides, which are added at a concentration of about 1 mM.

Also added to each well is about 0.01 micromolar to 1 mM of a testreagent, i.e., a small molecular weight compounds, e.g., finasteride,which can also transport through the disrupted cell membrane.

The induced cells are kept at 37° C. overnight. The cells are pelletedand lysed and the macromolecular protein 5-alpha reductase is purifiedusing a chromatography tag. If the test reagent was able to bind thevariant of protein 5-alpha reductase, the test reagent will be detectedby mass spectrometry. Mass spectrometry will also be used to identifythe binding variant.

This drug screening method enables one of skill in the art to determinethe identity of the variant macromolecule that responded to the testreagent.

In another embodiment of this experiment, the same macromolecule isexpressed in each well, but each well is contacted with a different testreagent to identify which test reagent binds the macromolecule.

Example 4 Determination of Cell Permeability

For any of the above Examples, the following known and publishedprocedures are an example of one method that may be used to test theextent of permeability of the cell membrane, after application orexpression of the cell permeabilizing agent. These procedures aredescribed in more detail in O'Keefe and Collier, PNAS, 86:343-6 (1989),among other publications. One of skill in the art may use these orsimilar procedures in optimizing the methods described herein.

The cells are viewed microscopically to ensure that the cells have notbeen lysed.

A. Membrane Potential.

Transformed E. coli cells are grown in L broth to an OD₅₉₅ of 1.0. Cellsare spun down and resuspended in 2 mM Tris·HCl/50 mM NaCl, pH 7.0, to aconcentration of 3×10⁹ cells per ml. For each experimental point, thecells are diluted 1:10 into 5 mM buffer at various pH values containing50 mM NaCl. From this point, the cells are kept at 37° C. in athermoregulated, magnetically stirred cuvette. The following buffers areadded to individual cuvettes: Pipes (pH 7.0 and 6.5), Mes (pH 6.0), andsodium citrate/sodium succinate (pH 5.5 and 5.0). The cells (containingthe pH specific buffers) are incubated for 1 min and then brought to 100mM Tris-HCl (pH 7.5). One minute later 3,3′-dipropylthiadicarbocyanineiodide (Molecular Probes, Eugene, Oreg.) is added to a finalconcentration of 1 μg/ml. The fluorescence, measured when the signalstabilized, is divided by the fluorescence at pH 7.0 to obtain relativefluorescence. Fluorescence is measured in a SLM AMINCO (Urbana, Ill.)SPF-500C spectrofluorometer with excitation at 645 nm and emission at668 nm. Both slits are set at 5 nm.

B. Proline Transport.

Cells grown overnight in potassium-free M9 medium (sodium phosphate issubstituted for potassium phosphate) are diluted 1:100 in the samemedium. After growing for 5 hr, the cells are resuspended in growthmedium to an OD₅₉₅ of 1.0. 0.1 mL of cells are added to 1.9 ml of 20 mMbuffer at various pH values (same as above) containing 4.8 μCi (1 Ci=37GBq) of L-[2,3,4,5-³H]proline. After 10 min at 37° C., the cells arefiltered through Millipore HA filters and washed with 5 ml ofpotassium-free M9 salts. The filters are dried and dissolved in OCS(Amersham), and the radioactivity is measured in a scintillationcounter.

C. ⁸⁶Rb Efflux.

Cells are grown as for the transport assays. After resuspending to anOD₅₉₅ of 1.0, the cells are incubated in the presence of ⁸⁶RbCl (20μCi/ml) for 1 hr at 37° C. 0.1 ml of cells are then added to 1.9 ml of20 mM buffer (same as above) at various pH values and incubated for 10min at 37° C. The cells are then filtered through Millipore HA filterspresoaked in wash buffer. The filters are washed with 5 ml of M9 saltssupplemented with 10 mM RbCl and dried, and radioactivity is determinedin a γ counter.

D. Determination of Membrane Permeation

A reduction of >95% activity in any of the above assays indicates thatthe cell membrane has been permeabilized sufficiently for transport ofsmall molecular weight compounds, without complete lysis of themembrane, according to the methods described herein.

All documents cited in the above specification are incorporated hereinby reference. While the invention has been described with reference tospecific embodiments and examples, it is appreciated that modificationscan be made without departing from the spirit of the invention. Forexample, one of skill in the art may readily select, inter alia, otherin situ drug screening protocols, other macromolecules, other nutrientcocktails and detection assays which use the host cells and methods ofthis invention to identify test reagents with desirable properties.

Such modifications are intended to fall within the scope of the appendedclaims.

1. A method for recombinantly expressing a macromolecule in a host cellcomprising: a) culturing a host cell to a selected cell densitysufficient to meet the desired production levels of the macromolecule,the host cell containing: i. a first nucleic acid sequence encoding amembrane-permeabilizing agent which is a naturally occurring ormodified, pore-forming protein or peptide, under the operative controlof a first consititutive or inducible regulatory sequence that directsexpression of the agent in the host cell; ii. a second nucleic acidsequence encoding the macromolecule under the operative control of asecond regulatory sequence comprising an inducible promoter, theregulatory sequence directing the expression of the macromolecule in thehost cell; b) exposing the host cell of (a) to an environmentalcondition that induces the membrane-permeabilizing agent to disrupt theintegrity of the cell membrane without complete lysis of the cellmembrane, cancelling the energized membrane function, and allowingtransport through the cell membrane of small molecular weight compounds;and c) providing the host cell of (b) with a nutrient cocktailcomprising components that can transport through the disrupted cellmembrane, the components comprising an inducing agent that induces thepromoter of the second regulatory sequence and metabolic requirementsthat permit expression of the macromolecule in the membrane-disruptedhost cell, and a chemical energy source; wherein the macromolecule isexpressed in the host cell. 2-17. (canceled)
 18. A method of enhancingrecombinant expression of a macromolecule in a host cell comprising: a)contacting a host cell with a membrane-permeabilizing agent which is anaturally occurring or modified, pore-forming protein or peptide, thatdisrupts the integrity of the cell membrane without complete lysis ofthe membrane, cancelling the energized membrane function but allowingtransport through the membrane of small molecular weight compounds, thehost cell containing a nucleic acid sequence encoding a macromoleculeunder the operative control of a regulatory sequence comprising aninducible promoter, the regulatory sequence directing expression of themacromolecule in the host cell; and b) providing the cells of (a) with anutrient cocktail comprising components that can transport through thedisrupted cell membrane, the components comprising metabolicrequirements that permit enhanced expression of the macromolecule in themembrane-disrupted host cell, and a chemical energy source.
 19. Themethod according to claim 1, wherein the host cell is selected from thegroup consisting of: bacterial cells, yeast cells, mammalian cells, andinsect cells.
 20. The method according to claim 1, wherein thepore-forming protein is a bacterial protein toxin selected from thegroup consisting of Diphtheria toxin, the Anthrax Protective Antigen,Pseudomonas aeruginosa exotoxin A, Botulinum toxin, Tetanus toxin,Cholera toxin, S. aureus α-toxin, β-barrel pore forming toxins, E. colihemolysin, Clostridium perfringens iota toxin, listeriolysin O, andcytolysins.
 21. The method according to claim 1, wherein thepore-forming protein or peptide is porin, nystatin, amphotericin B,gramicidin A, alamethicin, a holin, colicins, Colicin E1, Colicin E3,Colicin A, Colicin Ia, Colicin Y, a protegrin, a complement andcomplement-related protein, perforin, a plant protein toxin, abrin,ricin, and modeccin, a channel protein, an ion channel protein, avoltage-regulated channel protein, a chemically regulated channelprotein, an unregulated channel protein, a passive transport protein, anenzyme, lipase, a gap junction protein, a nuclear pore complex, anionophore, a membrane-fusing viral protein, or hemagglutinin.
 22. Themethod according to claim 1, wherein the macromolecule is a peptide,polypeptide, protein, DNA or RNA.
 23. The method according to claim 1,wherein the first nucleic acid sequence or the second nucleic acidsequence is present independently in a transport vector, which is aplasmid, a bacteriophage or a virus.
 24. The method according to claim1, wherein the second regulatory sequence is different from the firstregulatory sequence.
 25. The method according to claim 1, wherein theenvironmental condition of step (b) comprises at least one of: exposureto an agent, chemical, ligand, or biological molecule; temperature, pH,salt concentration, osmotic pressure and light.
 26. The method accordingto claim 25, wherein the agent, biological molecule, chemical or ligandis selected from the group consisting of a reducing agent, an oxidizingagent, an acid, a base, a salt, a chaotrope, a surfactant, and an agentthat induces the inducible promoter of the first regulatory sequence.27. The method according to claim 1, wherein the small molecular weightcompounds range in size between about 50 to about 2500 Daltons.
 28. Themethod according to claim 1, wherein the nutrient cocktail furthercomprises one or more components selected from the group consisting of:adenosine triphosphate (ATP), an amino acid, a ribonucleotide, acofactor, a deoxyribonucleotide, an unnatural amino acid, an osmolyte, astabilizer, a redox altering agent, and an environmental factornecessary to produce the macromolecule.
 29. The method according toclaim 1, further comprising recovering the expressed macromolecule fromthe host cell.
 30. The method according to claim 1, further comprisingconcentrating or harvesting the host cells prior to culturing the cellsin the presence of the nutrient cocktail.
 31. A method for in situ drugscreening comprising: (a) culturing host cells containing: i. a firstnucleic acid sequence encoding a membrane-permeabilizing agent under theoperative control of a first regulatory sequence that directs expressionof the agent in the host cells; and ii. a second nucleic acid sequenceencoding the macromolecule under the operative control of a secondregulatory sequence comprising an inducible promoter, the regulatorysequence directing the expression of the macromolecule in the host cell;to a selected cell density sufficient to meet the desired productionlevels of the macromolecule; wherein the second nucleic acid sequence inthe host cells of each individual culture encodes a differentmacromolecule; (b) exposing the host cells of (a) to an environmentalcondition suitable to induce the agent to disrupt the integrity of thecell membrane without complete lysis of the membrane, cancelling theenergized membrane function but allowing transport through the membraneof small molecular weight compounds; (c) providing the host cells of (b)with a nutrient cocktail comprising components that can transportthrough the disrupted cell membrane, the components comprising aninducing agent that induces the promoter of the second regulatorysequence of the cells; and metabolic requirements that permit expressionof the macromolecule in the membrane-disrupted host cells, and achemical energy source, wherein the macromolecules are expressed in thehost cells; (d) distributing the host cells to separate wells of amini-well plate after step (a), after step (b) or after step (c); (e)treating the host cells of each well of step (d) with a test reagent;and (f) determining the identity of the macromolecule that responded tothe test reagent.
 32. A method for in situ drug screening comprising:(a) culturing host cells that comprise (i) a first nucleic acid sequenceencoding a membrane-permeabilizing agent under the operative control ofa first regulatory sequence that directs expression of the agent in thehost cells; and (ii) a second nucleic acid sequence encoding themacromolecule under the operative control of a second regulatorysequence comprising an inducible promoter, the regulatory sequencedirecting the expression of the macromolecule in the host cell, to aselected cell density sufficient to meet the desired production level ofthe macromolecule; (b) exposing the host cells of (a) to anenvironmental condition suitable to induce the agent to disrupt theintegrity of the cell membrane without complete lysis of the membrane,cancelling the energized membrane function but allowing transportthrough the membrane of small molecular weight compounds; (c) providingthe host cells of (b) with a nutrient cocktail comprising componentsthat can transport through the disrupted cell membrane, the componentscomprising an inducing agent that induces the promoter of the secondregulatory sequence of the cells and metabolic requirements that permitexpression of the macromolecule in the membrane-disrupted host cells anda chemical energy source; wherein the macromolecules are expressed inthe host cells; (d) distributing the host cells to separate wells of amini-well plate after step (a), after step (b) or after step (c); (e)treating the host cells of (d) in each well with a different testreagent; and (f) determining the identity of the test reagent thatinduced a response in the macromolecule.
 33. The method according toclaim 31, wherein the response of the cells to a test reagent is abinding or triggering of a signal event.
 34. The method according toclaim 31, further comprising lysing the cells prior to treating thecells with a test reagent.
 35. The method according to claim 31, whereina test reagent is a small molecule that transports through the disruptedcell membranes.
 36. A method for recombinantly expressing an enzyme in ahost cell comprising: a) culturing a host cell to a selected celldensity sufficient to meet the desired production levels of the enzyme,the host cell containing: i. a first nucleic acid sequence encoding amembrane-permeabilizing agent, which is a naturally occurring ormodified, pore-forming protein, under the operative control of a firstconstitutive or inducible regulatory sequence that directs expression ofthe membrane-permeabilizing agent in the host cell; and ii. a secondnucleic acid sequence encoding an enzyme under the operative control ofa second regulatory sequence comprising an inducible promoter, theregulatory sequence directing the expression of the enzyme in the hostcell; b) exposing the host cell of (a) to an environmental conditionthat induces the membrane-permeabilizing agent to disrupt the integrityof the cell membrane without complete lysis of the cell membrane,cancelling the energized membrane function, and allowing transportthrough the cell membrane of small molecular weight compounds; c)providing the host cell of (b) with a nutrient cocktail comprisingcomponents that can transport through the disrupted cell membrane, thecomponents comprising an inducing agent that induces the promoter of thesecond regulatory sequence, and metabolic requirements that permitexpression of the enzyme in the membrane-disrupted host cell, asubstrate of the enzyme, and a chemical energy source; wherein theenzyme is expressed in the host cell; and d) collecting the product ofthe enzyme-substrate reaction thereby assessing the activity of theenzyme.
 37. A method of enhancing recombinant expression of a enzyme ina host cell comprising: a) contacting a host cell with amembrane-permeabilizing agent that disrupts the integrity of the cellmembrane without complete lysis of the membrane, cancelling theenergized membrane function but allowing transport through the membraneof small molecular weight compounds, the host cell containing a nucleicacid sequence encoding an enzyme under the operative control of aregulatory sequence comprising an inducible promoter, the regulatorysequence directing expression of the enzyme in the host cell; b)providing the cells of (a) with a nutrient cocktail comprisingcomponents that can transport through the disrupted cell membrane, thecomponents comprising metabolic requirements that permit enhancedexpression of the enzyme in the membrane-disrupted host cell, asubstrate of the enzyme, and a chemical energy source; and c) collectingthe product of the enzyme-substrate reaction thereby assessing theactivity of the enzyme
 38. The method according to claim 37, wherein thehost cell is selected from the group consisting of: bacterial cells,yeast cells, mammalian cells, and insect cells.
 39. The method accordingto claim 37, wherein the pore-forming protein is a bacterial proteintoxin selected from the group consisting of Diphtheria toxin, theAnthrax Protective Antigen, Pseudomonas aeruginosa exotoxin A, Botulinumtoxin, Tetanus toxin, Cholera toxin, S. aureus α-toxin, β-barrel poreforming toxins, E. coli hemolysin, Clostridium perfringens iota toxin,listeriolysin O, and cytolysins.
 40. A bacterial cell culture comprisinga bacterial host cell comprising: (i) a first nucleic acid sequenceencoding a membrane-permeabilizing agent, under the operative control ofa first regulatory sequence that directs expression of themembrane-permeabilizing agent in the host cell; (ii) a second nucleicacid sequence encoding the macromolecule under the operative control ofa second regulatory sequence comprising an inducible promoter, theregulatory sequence directing the expression of the macromolecule in thehost cell, and (iii) a disrupted, incompletely lysed cell membrane witha cancelled energized membrane function, said cell capable of allowingtransport through the disrupted cell membrane of small molecular weightcompounds and capable of expressing the macromolecule in the presence ofa nutrient cocktail comprising an inducing agent that induces thepromoter of the second regulatory sequence, metabolic requirements thatpermit expression of the macromolecule in the membrane-disrupted hostcell, and a chemical energy source, wherein said bacterial cell cultureis at a cell density sufficient to meet the desired production levels ofthe macromolecule and wherein the macromolecule is expressed in the hostcell.